TECHNOLOGY-FACILITATED GENDER BASED VIOLENCE (TFGBV) IN SITUATIONS OF CONFLICT-RELATED SEXUAL VIOLENCE (CRSV)

“Today, digital technologies shape our lives, organisations, economies and societies, creating opportunities that we must take and risks that we must tackle – including disproportionate risks of online abuse and exploitation of women and girls.”

UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres, Out Common Agenda (2023)

Although technology-facilitated gender-based violence (TFGBV) is a relatively new area of focus for the United Nations it has rapidly become a significant concern within conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) contexts, intensifying in scope and impact as technology continues to advance. The proliferation and innovation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and the rise of artificial intelligence have facilitated various forms of online and offline violence, including online gender-based hate speech, image-based sexual abuse, online harassment and trafficking in persons, disproportionately targeting women, youth and gender-diverse people, which can ultimately result in and exacerbate situations of CRSV.

I. What is TFGBV?

a. Definition

TFGBV can be defined as “an act of violence perpetrated by one or more individuals that is committed, assisted, aggravated and amplified in part or fully by the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), (e.g. the Internet, personal computers and smartphones) or digital media, against a person on the basis of their gender” (UNFPA).

CRSV can be defined as “rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced abortion, enforced sterilization, forced marriage, and any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity perpetrated against women, men, girls or boys that is directly or indirectly linked to a conflict” (UN Security Council).

This page focuses on the impact of TFGBV within CRSV scenarios.

b. Root Causes

CRSV	TFGBV
Patriarchal norms and structures Gender inequality Gender-discriminatory laws and policies Human rights violations, such as infringements on the rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association; slavery and forced labour; arbitrary arrest or detention and arbitrary interference with privacy Ideological extremism	Gender bias and gender inequality in the design of digital technologies Digital harassment, particularly targeting women and girls Pre-existing violence manifested with ICTs Social and political propaganda targeting specific groups
Exacerbating factors
Political, economic and social inequality Poverty and economic scarcity Extreme poverty or economic crises Climate change and competition for resources Availability of arms	Lack of accountability in cyberspace Use of digital surveillance and manipulation to influence behaviour and control populations

c. Who is vulnerable to TFGBV ?

Although TFGBV can affect everyone, women, children and persons of diverse sexual orientation and gender identity are disproportionately targeted by such violence (U.S. Department of State) (UN Women). Furthermore, individuals are more likely to experience TFGBV when facing intersecting forms of discrimination based on disability, religion, caste, ethnicity, race, age, class, and rural or urban residency. (Amnesty International).

Those particularly vulnerable to TFGBV include:

Children and young people, due to their expanding digital presence to access information, connect to peers and use tech for learning (Rutgers) (UN Women). Young women and girls are disproportionately affected, whereby 58 percent of girls and young women have experienced some form of online harassment (Plan International)
Women in public life, human rights defenders, activists, journalists and lawmakers, who face increased rates of violence as a result of their work. (UN Women). UNESCO has reported that 73 percent of women journalists experienced online violence in the course of their professional lives. (UNESCO). Unlike men in prominent positions, who are targeted primarily for their policies, women are more often subjected to abuse because of their gender, appearance, and their choice to go beyond traditional gender roles. (Rutgers)
LGBTQI+ people are more likely to experience both TFGBV and offline forms o violence linked to TFGBV, according to a study conducted by Rutgers, whereby media platforms amplify hostility towards this group and ensuing persecution and shaming. (Rutgers)

II. Types of TFGBV Modalities that impact situations of CRSV

a. Technology-Facilitated Trafficking in Persons

Trafficking in Persons refers to “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation, which includes, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs (OHCHR).

The definition of technology-facilitated trafficking in persons therefore extends to any act of trafficking in person that is perpetrated by one or more individuals, committed, assisted, aggravated and amplified in part or fully by the use of ICTs or digital media (including social media).

In conflict and post-conflict settings, ICTs can notably be used to lure vulnerable individuals into situations where they are subsequently trafficked (recruitment phase) , and/or used to facilitate the trafficking of persons for the purpose of sexual exploitation through online markets (exploitation phase).

Example

Online trafficking and sexual enslavement of Yazidi women and girls by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL/ISIS) from 2014 onwards

ISIS fighters held online sex slave auctions using the Telegram application to circulate photos of captured Yazidi women and girls, with details of their age, marital status, current location and price. Yazidis and advocacy groups have called for other social media platforms to be held accountable, including Meta (formerly Facebook), which encompasses Whatsapp, X (formerly twitter) and Youtube (Reuters, 2022). OHCHR (2016),

ICT-facilitated trafficking of Ukrainian refugees for sexual and labour exploitation

Since the start of the conflict in Ukraine, criminal networks have groomed Ukrainian refugees for sexual and labour exploitation via websites and social media platforms. In May 2022, an EMPACT investigation was launched against these networks. Through the monitoring of posts offering help to refugees for transportation, accommodation and work, investigators identified new trends, and gathered insights into the threat of sexual and labour exploitation of Ukrainian refugees. Notably, they found that human traffickers lured victims through offers of a ‘bright future’, which tricked them into sexual exploitation, or accommodation offers specifically targeted at Ukrainian refugees (Europol, 2022).

See resource section below for more information

b. Online harassment, doxxing and/or trolling

Online harassment refers to the use of ICTs by an individual or group to repeatedly cause harm to another person. This may involve threats, embarrassment, or humiliation in an online setting. (Durham University)

Doxxing refers to “the publication of private information, such as contact details, on the Internet with malicious intent” (OHCHR).

Trolling refers to “the posting of messages, the uploading of images or videos and the creation of hashtags for the purpose of annoying, provoking or inciting violence against women and girls. Many “trolls” are anonymous and use false accounts to generate hate speech” (OHCHR.)

In conflict and post-conflict situations, online harassment, doxxing and trolling exacerbate the risks of CRSV. By inciting hate and violence and exposing personal information, these actions allow perpetrators to move from virtual harassment to physical attacks, including sexual violence.

Example

Politically motivated abuse of Myanmar women online

Since the February 1, 2021 coup, Myanmar women have used social media to voice political views, facing increased online abuse and harassment as a result. Myanmar Witness reports that doxxing is the main form of abuse and appears linked to offline violence and arrests targeting women who oppose the military Junta.

Journalist Rana Ayyub targeted with online violence at the intersection of misogyny and Islamophobia

“The award-winning independent journalist has faced virtually unrelenting online threats, harassment and abuse for over a decade. She is called “Jihadi Jane”, an “ISIS sex slave”, a “presstitute” and Twitter mobs have called for her to be gang-raped.” (International Center for Journalists, 2023)

See resource section below for more information

c. Online Hate Speech in CRSV settings

Hate speech refers to “any kind of communication in speech, writing or behaviour, that attacks or uses pejorative or discriminatory language with reference to a person or a group on the basis of who they are, in other words, based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factor. This is often rooted in, and generates intolerance and hatred, and in certain contexts can be demeaning and divisive” (United Nations).The definition of online hate speech therefore extends to any act of hate speech perpetrated by one or more individuals, committed, assisted, aggravated and amplified in part or fully by the use of ICTs or digital media.

In conflict and post-conflict settings, hate speech can, directly or indirectly, lead to or exacerbate instances of sexual violence.

Example

Online hate speech fueling the persecution of Rohingyas in Myanmar, who are targeted with widespread and systematic CRSV

“The Human Rights Council’s fact-finding mission on Myanmar is alarmed by the widespread hate speech, both offline and online, which often incites discrimination, hostility, and violence. Social media, especially Facebook, plays a significant role, as it is a primary source of internet access for many users (OHCHR, 2018).”

Spread of anti-Yezidi rhetoric online

“Thousands of Iraqis made inflammatory and hate-mongering statements on social media, such as “ISIS was right about what they did to Yezidis” and “We should kill Yezidis. They are devil-worshippers (Free Yezidi Foundation).”

See resource section below for more information

d. Image-based Sexual Abuse (IBSA)

Image-based sexual abuse refers to the threat of and non-consensual production, recording, and distribution of sexual images and videos (also known as digital sexual assault or nonconsensual intimate images). This includes both synthetic and non-synthetic images. Synthetic IBSA is often perpetuated through non-consensual sexual deepfakes, which refers to the generation, distribution, and consummation of AI-manipulated media that depicts someone in sexually explicit content without their consent (also known as synthetic sexual violence and AI-assisted sexual abuse). IBSA also includes sextortion, a type of electronic blackmail pertaining to the demand for money, sex/sex acts, or additional explicit images in exchange for not exposing intimate images or private information.

IBSA can be used as a tool of humiliation and control, to harm one’s reputation, make profit or for sexual purposes. These practices are very powerful deterrents used to silence women, girls and other vulnerable groups, as the specific social and normative context in which they are committed often include strong cultural and religious sensitivities linked to privacy, nudity and the significance of the veil, where stigma and social exclusion can have deep repercussions at the individual and community level for the victim, particularly for women and girls. Ultimately, the non-consensual dissemination of sexualised content can lead to physical violence and feminicides/ honour-killings.

The traumatic impact of IBSA is exacerbated by i) the difficulty of removing content from the online sphere, perpetuating the trauma experienced by the survivor, and ii) the burden of trying to so often falling on the survivor, and iii) the facility with which harmful non-consensual content can be uploaded again.

This has major implications in contexts of CRSV, whereby image-based sexual violence can be used to deter survivors of CRSV from coming forward and to silence women human rights defenders and feminist organisations, ultimately furthering the culture of impunity and paving the way for increased instances of CRSV. Furthermore, survivors are less likely to be referred to comprehensive, life-saving services if they do not come forward, preventing their immediate and long-term recovery.

Example

IBSA as a form of reprisal in Libya

Several cases of TFGBV were recorded in 2023 including gender-based hate-speech, online threats, including of sexual violence, and cases where sexual assaults were filmed and posted online. One incident of sexual assault was documented and broadcasted, reportedly following social media posts by the victim denouncing an armed group. Fear of reprisals, stigma and social norms related to honour and shame contributed to severe underreporting.

e. Other forms of TFGBV that could potentially lead to or exacerbate the harm caused by CRSV

Cyberbullying

A form of online harassment pertaining to the constant and intentional infliction of damage through digital technologies to undermine the victims’ self-esteem (Digital Violence Terms) (Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence: An Overview).

Cybermob

A large group of online attackers who threaten, insult and verbally abuse the victims, often in an organised coordinated manner (Digital Violence Terms) (Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence: An Overview).

Online Impersonation

Creating a fake profile and assuming someone’s identity for nefarious purposes, including destroying someone’s reputation or threatening their safety (Digital Violence Terms) (Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence: An Overview).

III. Relevant UN Frameworks and Resolutions

The UN has developed various frameworks and resolutions addressing issues related to online violence and digital development:

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 78/L.49 (2024) focuses on seizing the opportunities of safe, secure and trustworthy artificial intelligence systems for sustainable development.

Our Common Agenda Policy Brief 11 UN 2.0 (2023) embodies the Secretary-General’s vision of a revitalised United Nations family driven by a progressive culture and emphasises the importance of building digital capacity, transforming an organisation’s technologies, skills and processes towards digitally enabled solutions that improve connectivity, service delivery, stakeholder collaboration, engagement and decision-making.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 2713 (2023) raises concerns about terrorist groups’ strategic use of ICTs, including the Internet and social media and urges Member States to collaborate with the Government of the Federal Republic of Somalia (GFRS) to prevent Al-Shabaab’s exploitation of social media for criminal activities. It encourages the GFRS to develop a communication strategy and outreach mechanism to counter Al-Shabaab’s narratives through audio-visual and social media platforms.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 2686 (2023) expresses deep concern at instances of violence fuelled by hate speech, misinformation and disinformation, including through social media platforms.
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 77/150 (2022) emphasises the importance of implementing science, technology, and innovation strategies that specifically promote the empowerment of women and girls and reduce the gender digital divide. This resolution underlines the need for capacity-development policies and sustainable support at national and local levels to enhance the impact of initiatives such as the International Girls in ICT Day and the Equals Partnership that aim to promote the equal participation of women and girls in the digital age.
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 76/189 (2022) stresses the importance of ICTs in international sustainable development.
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 76/186 (2022) recognises the potential of the Internet and other ICTs in preventing and combating trafficking in persons and aiding victims. It emphasises the need for enhanced law enforcement cooperation to address challenges arising from the rapid development of these technologies, while expressing concern over the misuse of the Internet and ICTs by traffickers to facilitate human trafficking.
Roadmap for Digital Cooperation (2020) outlines a comprehensive framework for advancing global digital cooperation. It highlights the need for universal digital connectivity, digital public goods, inclusion, human rights, and trust and security to harness technology for sustainable development and address the digital divide.
The Framework for Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Reviews (2019) plays a pivotal role in enhancing the technological and innovation capacities of developing countries through its Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP) Review programme. The latter evaluates national science, technology and innovation (STI) systems, refines policies, and integrates STI into national development strategies and international cooperation plans, aligning with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
United Nations Field Technology Framework (2018) outlines the strategic vision for advancing ICT in support of UN field operations from 2018 to 2023 by delivering ICT solutions that are rapid, effective, efficient, and responsible, and integrating these core principles into all ICT planning and operations throughout the Framework’s duration.
The UN Secretary-General’s Strategy on New Technologies (2018) aims to define how the UN system will assist in leveraging new technologies to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and to ensure they are in harmony with the principles of the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and International Laws.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 2396 (2017) urges Member States to cooperate in preventing the exploitation of technologies, particularly by terrorist organisations,while respecting human rights and adhering to domestic and international law. It highlights the importance of continued voluntary collaboration with the private sector and civil society to create effective counter-terrorism strategies, including developing counter-narratives and innovative technological solutions.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 2331 (2016) condemns all acts of trafficking, particularly the sale or trade-in persons undertaken by ISIL, also known as Da’esh, and expresses its intention to consider targeted sanctions for individuals and entities involved in sexual violence in conflict and in trafficking in persons in areas affected by armed conflict. It also highlights concerns about the criminal exploitation of information and communication technologies, especially the Internet, to facilitate human trafficking, including the sale and trade of persons, by certain terrorist organisations.
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 70/1 (2015) highlights the importance of the proliferation of ICT, along with global interconnectedness, to potentially significantly enhance human progress, close the digital divide, and foster the development of knowledge societies.

Frameworks and resolutions addressing issues related to CRSV can be found here

IV. TFGBV in Situations of Concern

This section offers examples of TFGBV patterns identified in contexts where CRSV has been listed as a situation of concern in the Secretary-General’s Annual Report(s) on CRSV.

IRAQ

From 2014 onwards, ISIS exploited digital platforms, including online messenger apps, to trade and traffic Yazidi women, girls, and boys, resulting in severe sexual violence, including enslavement, rape, and torture (UN, 2021). Additionally, religious groups used ICTs, such as Facebook and WhatsApp, to spread misinformation and defamation against the Yazidi community, instilling fear of future attacks.

LIBYA

In Libya, the use of sexual violence to silence journalists, prisoners, migrants and women is prevalent. In 2023, numerous cases of online hate speech and threats of sexual violence were recorded. One female politician was notably threatened with death and sexualised defamation. Additionally, human rights defenders expressed concerns about their safety due to persistent online threats of sexual violence. In some cases, sexual attacks were recorded and shared online, including one incident where the victim had criticised an armed group on social media.

MYANMAR

In Myanmar, social media, particularly Facebook, has been a powerful tool for spreading hate. ICTs have notably been employed as instruments to advocate for the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya people,who have been subjected to widespread sexual violence as a result. Social media has been used to spread gendered narratives portraying Rohingya individuals as threats to Buddhism, accusing women of strategically spreading Islam through high birth rates and men of sexually assaulting and corrupting Buddhist women.

ISRAEL AND THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN TERRITORY

Social media platforms have been used to perpetuate sexual abuse in situations of conflict and exacerbate the spread of online hate and racism against Palestinian and Jewish communities, in particular since October 2023. The UN Human Rights Council reported ‘many incidents in which ISF systematically targeted and subjected Palestinians to SGBV online and in person since October 7, including through forced public nudity, forced public stripping, sexualized torture and abuse, and sexual humiliation and harassment. These incidents took place during ground operations in conjunction with evacuations and arrests.’ Reports have also highlighted how messages on X including harmful content incited violence, racism, and hatred against Palestinians and directly contributed to the violence that flared between Israeli settlers and Palestinian villagers in Huwwara.

Furthermore, UN experts reported that the Israeli army took photos of Palestinian female detainees in degrading conditions and uploaded them online. The UN Human Rights Council further indicated that the abduction, violence and humiliation of Israeli women during the attacks of the 7th of October were put on public display by recording the bodies of women or the acts of the crime and publishing it online for propaganda purposes.

UKRAINE

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has exacerbated a pre-existing environment where Ukrainian women are overtly sexualised and objectified. Sex traffickers have exploited messaging apps and social media platforms used by Ukrainian refugees seeking assistance, to lure women into vulnerable situations that ultimately led to their trafficking and exploitation.

YEMEN

Women human rights defenders in Yemen face continuous online violence, including online blackmailing, harassment, threats, and the dissemination of false information aimed at discrediting and silencing their activism and undermining their efforts to advocate for human rights and gender equality.

b. Others

KENYA

In 2014, Al-Shabaab used social media to share its propaganda, attract recruits and coordinate its followers – all of which can contribute to online radicalisation and CRSV. Additionally, women politicians in Kenya continue to experience online abuse and harassment, impeding progress in boosting women’s political voice, especially during elections. The Interparliamentary Union and the African Parliamentary Union states that at least 42% of women parliamentarians have encountered TFGBV in 2021.

V. Initiatives and Promising Practices

Members of the UN Action Network have been conducting research, implementing country-based programmes, and raising awareness on issues relating to TFGBV in CRSV contexts. These are a few examples:

UN WOMEN

Spotlight Initiative is the UN’s high-impact initiative to end violence against women and girls. It uses technology to improve the safety of women and girls, both on and offline, by providing direct support to survivors; implementing digital laws and policies; raising awareness; improving digital literacy and engaging influencers.
The African Girls Can Code Initiative aims to train and empower at least 2000 young girls aged 17-25 across Africa to become proficient computer programmers, creators, and designers. This initiative aims to prepare them for studies and careers in ICT, education and coding sectors.
The Oasis Programme: UN Women has created the Oasis empowerment centre to address the urgent needs of Syrian refugee women and girls in the Za’atari and Azraq refugee camps and in impoverished areas of Jordan. The Oasis model aims to enhance humanitarian efforts and resilience-building initiatives in Jordan to better serve the needs of Syrian women refugees and vulnerable Jordanian women. Through interactive workshops and awareness sessions, women engage with human rights, GBV, and protection mechanisms, all aligned with the 16 Days of Activism against Gender-Based Violence campaign.
The UNITE to End Violence against Women initiative was launched in 2008 under the leadership of the UN Secretary-General to support civil society, women’s organisations, young people, the private sector, media, and the UN system in joining forces to address the global pandemic of violence against women and girls. The initiative is led by the annual 16 Days of Activism against Gender-Based Violence campaign, which calls for the prevention and elimination of violence against women and girls, as well as other forms of GBV and online GBV.

The UN Secretariat and Other Initiatives and Resources:

Together for Girls is a global public-private partnership dedicated to ending violence against children, with a particular focus on sexual violence against girls. Founded in 2009, the Together for Girls partnership brings together six UN agencies, the governments of the United States and Canada, several private sector organisations, and implementing country governments to prevent and respond to violence against children, as a fundamental step to achieving individual rights and well-being, gender equality, and sustainable development. Together for Girls investigated online child sexual abuse such as: Pledges made in Brussels to step up the global fight against online child sexual abuse and The new face of schooling… and keeping kids safe at home and online.
The UN Trust Fund to End Violence against Women (UN Trust Fund) is a global grant-making mechanism dedicated to supporting initiatives aimed at preventing and addressing all forms of violence against women and girls, including online violence. Established in 1996 by the UN General Assembly and managed by UN Women, the fund provides financial support to civil society organisations, governments, and UN country teams to implement innovative and effective strategies to combat GBV.

The Global Digital Compact highlights the importance of empowering all women and girls, encouraging women’s leadership, mainstreaming gender perspectives and preventing and eliminating SGBV occurring through or amplified by the use of technology.
The National Action Plan to Prevent and Respond to Online Child Sexual Exploitation in Cambodia 2021-2025 outlines a comprehensive strategy to combat the issue of online child sexual exploitation. The plan focuses on enhancing legal frameworks, strengthening law enforcement capabilities, increasing public awareness, and providing support services to survivors. Key components include improving national legislation to address online exploitation; training law enforcement and judicial personnel; launching public education campaigns to raise awareness; and establishing support mechanisms for affected children and families. The action plan aims to create a safer online environment for children in Cambodia by fostering multi-sectoral collaboration and ensuring the effective implementation of policies and programs.
Communities Care: Transforming Lives and Preventing Violence Programme is a community-driven model aimed at preventing and addressing sexual violence against girls and women in conflict-affected areas. The programme is based on the concept that despite the profound suffering caused by armed conflict, such disruption can also create opportunities for positive changes in social norms, to promote gender equality and reduce GBVtm and discrimination.
UN Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict is a network of 25 UN entities to combat sexual violence in conflict. This initiative aims to enhance coordination and accountability within the UN system, strengthen programming and advocacy efforts, and support national initiatives to prevent sexual violence and address the needs of survivors effectively. The UN Action Network has framed the issue of CRSV in the digital space as a priority in its newly developed 2024-2025 Work plan.